Successful enhancement of healthy cognition will require a foundation of more specific, mechanistic theories, and may require consensus around hallmarks of “normal” cognition, and how and under what circumstances it could or should be enhanced. An early study is underway in China to benchmark average markers of brain health against age, which could underpin future early warning systems of an abnormal rate of decline, and illuminate interventions that work to halt such decline.⁴ Other trials now underway promise to yield biomarkers of good cognitive function.

There is still much to learn about why different enhancing techniques seem to have a differential impact on enhancing cognition in healthy humans across the lifespan. Physical exercise seems to be particularly effective in children⁵; non-invasive brain stimulation is a good candidate to compensate for cognitive decline in ageing⁶; playing action video games may provide a route to improved cognition in healthy adults⁷, which might provide advantage in dynamic, information-driven work environments. Open research questions include whether boosting some aspects of cognition could have hidden downsides.⁸