Experimental research is already using neurotechnologies and other delivery systems to modulate memory and other cognitive functions. As with brain monitoring, these fall into broad categories of invasive and non-invasive. Non-invasive technologies to modulate brain signals are transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS).⁸ tDCS has been shown to enhance certain cognitive functions, such as episodic memory in older adults.⁹ Non-invasive technologies and focused ultrasound (FUS) could make it possible to remove unwanted memories. Invasive techniques for neuromodulation include optogenetics¹⁰ and deep brain stimulation¹¹, which has been successful for Parkinson’s and is now in trials to rescue memory in Alzheimer’s disease. A third category blurs the line between invasive and non-invasive, and includes drugs and nanobot drug delivery systems to carry chemicals across the blood brain barrier.

Progress in this area rests on the development of closed-loop devices, which can read and decode brain signals, and respond by making decisions – often aided by AI — and then also engage stimulation in specific brain regions in order to override, dampen or amplify a faulty signal. The first commercial applications will likely be invasive devices that treat epilepsy and Parkinson’s, but closed-loop neuromodulation will eventually encompass invasive and non-invasive technologies.